This issue contains Part 1 of a Special Feature on the Harzards of Owning a Reef by Marc Chodos, and Marther answers a question on the use of Lugol's solution in treating coral bacterial infections.

Editorial

Summer is really here now, and it has made itself very well known within the last couple of weeks here in Melbourne. So far we have had two periods lasting two or three days where the day time temperature has gone over 40^oC! I personally don't mind temperature like that too much, but it is a different story when you have a large reef tank using several circulation pumps and a large wattage of lighting. Moving to a new location has made things a bit different to what they were last summer. In the previous house there was a really high ceiling and the house itself was very large. This meant that it took a long time for the house to warm up, and there was a large volume of air to keep things a bit on the cooler side. The window into the room OZ REEF was located in could also be shielded by a blind.

Things are almost the opposite in our new unit. The ceiling is much lower and lacks any insulation, the room is smaller, the window faces west and is larger allowing more solar radiation in, there is no blind or shade, and the unit overall is smaller. So I knew that it might make it quite a bit more interesting when things started to warm up. The first thing to do was to shade the window and the area around it. Outside the window to the lounge where OZ REEF is located there is a car port, and between the window and the car port there is a large opening in the roof to let light in. This all faces west, so in the afternoon there is direct sun on the window, the concrete and the adjoining brick walls. On a clear day this area gets hot as the concrete and bricks absorb and store the heat. To reduce the amount of heat reaching this area I put up some 70% shade cloth across the hole at the roof level. (And don't you go calling up my landlord and telling him that either ;-) ) Something as simple and cheap as this makes a huge difference.

The next thing was the problem of the smaller air volume in the unit, and therefore less ventilation/evaporation available. I think I might have mentioned this previously in OZ REEF Press, but I will go through it anyway. I picked up two large roof ventilation fans from a hardware store for a great price, the type of fans that are normally used in bathrooms and kitchens for ventilation. These were mounted into a large piece of particle board that fitted into one of the windows of the lounge room. When the fans are turned on the air blows into the end and down the back of OZ REEF.

It was not long before both of these were put to the test, a short hot spell where two days it was over 40^oC and the night in between only got down to 27^oC! I was pleasantly surprised that the shade cloth along with the increased room ventilation managed to keep OZ REEF comfortably below 30^oC during the day, and it normally operates around 26-27^oC. This was even with the actual room temperature reaching around the 36^oC mark! The time that the metal halides were on was also reduced by a couple of hours as they are a significant source of heat, and that would have helped a lot.

Holding the temperature at that point was not too hard, but getting it down again was a bit more difficult (cooling is much harder than heating). To assist with this I cooled down all the concrete and bricks around the unit by giving them a spray down with water. The evaporating water made a significant difference to the temperature of these surfaces and more importantly the temperature of the air passing over them. Of course this will also increase the humidity of the air, and therefore reduce the amount of cooling available via evaporation of the system water. But I considered that the reduction radiative and convective heat from these hot surfaces far out weighs the minor loss of evaporation ability from OZ REEF.

This is all rather promising to hold up to some of the long hot spells that are sure to occur in January and February, as we reach the really hot part of summer. When the DIY chiller that I made last year out of a small bar fridge is set up, then should be able to handle consecutive high temperature days no problem at all. Although the addition of another pump, which I will discussion shortly, has increased the system operating temperature by around 1^oC. But I am confident that once the chiller is up and running, should be no problem at all to keep things down to a maximum of 30^oC. If not, then I still have a few tricks up my sleeve ;-)

Christmas time off university is perfect for doing those jobs that you have put off for sometime, in my case this was performing some alterations to the protein skimmer. Previously it was a simple air stone driven skimmers, which do operate very well if you keep up with the air stone replacement every couple of weeks. But this does start to get on the expensive side, and was bit of a pain to have to do it the way that I had designed the skimmer. I had always planned to convert the skimmer to a venturi style one, and this would simple mean using another pump to move water from the sump to the skimmer, and pass it through a venturi valve on the way. One of the operating restrictions on a pump to be used with a venturi valve though, is have to be able to supply sufficient amounts of pressure required with the venturi for a decently aerated water. This means that not just any pump can be used, so the options are a bit more restricted. Additionally a good venturi valve in not a trivial expense, there must be another way to do it.

And of course there is :-) On the odd occasion will feeding with my Coral and Fish Feeder some air bubbles made their way into the intake of one of the circulation pumps. As no surprise when they came out the bubbles were very small, perfect for a protein skimmer. At this time I was not aware that some commercially available skimmers used this method, so I asked a few questions around the traps. Damn, wont be able to patent this idea then ;-) The commercially available skimmers using this idea are typically called something like pin wheel skimmers. The reason for this is they have a pin wheel, a large number of narrow rods, for an impeller rather than the typically 6 fins. These are supposed to help to chop the air coming into the pump into real small bubbles. Seemed to me that the bubbles coming out of any pump when you let some air in was small enough, so why bother with an expensive new part to may be increase efficiency by a couple of percent?

So that is what I went for, with a new Sen 700G (external/internal 2,800 LPH 0 head) as the pump, with the impeller as is supplied. The has been placed on the intake side of the sump, so water directly from the display tank overflow is available to the skimmer. A Hagen Aquaclear Quick Filter attachment is the prefilter on the pump intake, and an airline join has been glued into a section of the pump intake to let in the air. Onto the join is a length of airline with an airline control valve. The skimmer output is on the other side of the first baffle to the input, to reduce any recycling of water that has already been through the skimmer. This would reduce the efficiency with which it works, and was the arrangement that was previously used. Now there is about twice the flowrate from the display tank to the sump due to the fact the return pump output is no longer split between the tank and the skimmer. A more optimal arrangement. This also leaves available one line from the return pump to remove water from the sump for water changes. No more having to siphon water out of the main tank and trying to avoid sucking some curious Chromis up ;-)

Because the skimmer pump is located above the water line, it has to be primed before it starts moving water. OK, so this is probably not the best arrangement here, but to avoid this the sump would either have to be drilled again or place the inlet in the same compartment of the return pump intake, reducing overall efficiency. Neither of these options are roads that I want to go down currently. So if the power goes out then on again, it will not restarted. But as it turns out priming is not a difficult thing to do, just not automatic. It involves sucking on the airline until the majority of the air is removed from the pump. Very simple. This is also a great idea if you have any pumps at all that are above the water, such as the two circulation pumps that are on the display tank of OZ REEF. I certainly plan to add this, which will mean no longer having to use the output from another pump to prime the circulating pump lines.

There is a distinct noise due to the air being sucked into the pump though, and it would be rather annoying if the inlet was not contained in the tank stand. This deadens the noise considerably, to the point that it is difficult to pick up out over the other system noises. To help to reduce this even further I plan to use a long length of air line and place the air input outside with some sort of prefilter on it. As to what prefilter I have not worked anything out for that yet. This will also have the double feature of using fresh air that is lower in carbon dioxide and higher in oxygen than that in the lounge room. This will assist to remove excess carbon dioxide and introduce more oxygen to the water at an increased rate. It will most likely not be that significant, but every little bit helps. The pump also makes more noise that it would normally with a full stream of water flowing through, but this is just the sound of the water passing through and is not loud enough to be a problem. But you have to have some type of noise with what ever sort of skimmer that you use, and the bigger it is, the more noise that it makes. It is just a trade off you have to make. Probably the noise that is now most noticeable is the overflow, which is now having to take about twice as much water flow. The splashing and gurgling noise is much louder, and that is another thing that hopefully I will be able to address in the near future.

While I was working on the skimmer system, I also added a self leveling feature. What this means is that there is no need to use a valve of any sort to adjust the water/foam interface level in the skimmer to where it should be, it adjusts itself automatically. It is very simple to do, and I really wonder why it has not made its appearance on any DIY plans of skimmers before. Adding this entailed increasing the height of the outlet line of the skimmer to about 5 cm below where the water/foam interface should be. This measurement will vary slightly due to the pump flowrate and water flow resistance from the skimmer. With this inline, there is no longer any need to use a valve to adjust the level in the skimmer.

Now I bet you are all wondering, how does it operate, what is its performance like? Well, so far it is very good. It is very simple to tune the amount of air that makes it through the pump, and therefore the amount of air that is in the skimmer. Of course, it is possible to let too much air in, and then the pump stops pumping water. The water/air mixture coming out of the pump is white, and that located in the water column in the skimmer is filled with nice small bubbles moving in a very turbulent manner. And it does not have any problems at all of producing a decent foam. This arrangement has so far generated more foam in a week than what it would have in three previously. And no more changing air stones every couple of weeks :-)

I hope that you enjoy this month's Special Feature. It is written by a friend that I met on the Aqualink Discussion Board a couple of years ago. Marc is a medicine student, and was taking particular interest at the time into the various medical hazards associated with keeping a reef aquarium. So I managed to persuade him to put his thoughts and research all down in writing. And the results were certainly worth the wait. He is currently in South African doing his part of his intern year, then travelling for the rest of it. It is an article that has been in the pipeline for now over 12 months and has finally come out ;-) Being a med student, Marc was a bit stretched for time after the first version to do corrections etc. Because of the length of it, I have decided to split it into two parts, spread over two months.

And a final note on some site alterations. If you are into DIY projects, then you should have a look at the DIY Plans section now. A couple of weeks ago I sat down over the weekend and fully updated the links to other DIY projects that can be found on the Internet. It is the most comprehensive list of projects you will find anywhere on the Internet. (OK, is the most comprehensive that I have been able to find ;-) ) At last count, there was 156 links to distinct files on various projects. I hope that you find it of some help in finding details on DIY projects. If you find one that I don't have listed, then please take the time to let me know so we can share it with the rest of the online reef keeping community. That would be much appreciated.

Thats all for this month. Catch ya,
DBW

Welcome OZ REEF's New Residents

No new resident's to OZ REEF since the last issue.

Resident of the Month

No resident of the month.

Dear Marther ReefKeeper

Dear Marther,

It was recently recommended to me to treat my receeding hammer coral (Euphyllia sp.) with Lugol's solution. It is iodine at about 10 times the strength of a normal iodine solution. Do you know if I should treat this in the tank, or out of the tank. What effect will it have on the rest of my tank?

From,
Irene O. Dine

Dear Irene,

The reason that Lugol's, or iodine, dips for corals are used when they have an infection is because of the presence of iodine (I2), which is an antiseptic. It therefore kills off bacteria that is present on the coral at that time. The bacteria may or may not be what is causing the problem, but it can give the coral a chance to get an upperhand over the infliction. The antiseptic or germicidal action is due to the I2 directly halogenating microbial cell protein. It's effect is additionally not descriminate, it cannot pick out the good guys from the bad guys. So any bacteria will be killed off, including those which are normal coral bacterial fauna, those involved in the infection, and opportunistic bacteria.

Lugol's is simply a potassium iodide (KI) solution in water into which iodine (I₂) has been added. The reason that both iodine and iodide are used in conjuction is that this allows a much higher concentration of iodine to be contained in the solution. This is due to the formation of an I₃^- anion, which is what gives the solution a brown colouring. This high concentration of iodine is a double edged sword. It makes it easy to put large amounts of iodine into a reef system with a small volumetric addition. But it also makes it easy to overdose, and this could be stressful or fatal due to the antiseptic properties of the I₂ present.

The recommended method of treatment of bacterial infections of corals using Lugol's is as follows:

• Take some water from your reef tank and place in a separate container. There has to be enough to completely cover the coral that is going to be treated.
• Take note of the volume of water that is placed in the container.
• Remove the coral from the tank and place it in the container.
• Add 10 drops of Lugol's to the container (not the tank) for every 1 litre or 4 cups of water.
• Let the coral stand in the solution for 10 minutes.
• Then with a gloved hand, retrieve the coral and place it back in the reef tank.

When I₂ is added to seawater, it reacts relatively quickly to give iodide (I^-) and iodate (IO₃^-). Both of these forms of iodine are found in natural seawater. It is not currently know which form is taken up by marine organisms that require or use it. Note that corals do not require iodine in any form in the water, it does not have to be dosed to maintain natural seawater levels.

If it is the I^- that is the important form, then you are also adding IO₃^-, and visa versa. In either case the concentration of the species not being used or exported will increase with time. It appears to be the case that iodide is the biolgically active or exported form, with reports of high iodate levels in reef aquarium systems. It could also be that the iodate is the more stable form of iodine in seawater, so if any form of iodine is added it eventually ends up as iodate and the concentration builds up.

Hope this helps to clear a few things up about the use of Lugol's for bacterial treatments in a reef aquarium.

From,
Marther ReefKeeper

Special Feature

The Hazards of Owning a Reef

by

Introduction

The tropical reef environment is a harsh but beautiful world. In areas powerful waves break upon its inhabitants and strong surges scour the reef. Bio-available nutrients are lacking, with many creatures competing with others for these scarce morsels. The reef's greatest asset is the intense sun providing energy, both directly and indirectly, for algae and animals low on the food chain to synthesize carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Again, organisms must compete with others, for access to the sun's rays. Additionally every organism must protect itself from higher animals seeking to make a meal of them. Moreover, these higher animals must also guard against attack from other predators, and so on and so forth. Over the millennia all of these creatures have evolved specialised appendages and mechanisms to defend themselves and secure an advantageous position within the reef.

Often it is these appendages and mechanisms that attract aquarists to marine aquaria and reef keeping. The unique and brilliant shapes, colors, and patterns of marine life can rapidly turn an average room into a surreal realm of beauty and intrigue. Yet, many of these highly evolved designs are not as benign as the aquarist might wish. Instead, many camouflage jaws, spines, nematocysts, and potent toxins. This article will address these dangers that may confront the hobbyist. In addition, steps that can be taken to protect against injury, methods to treat minor trauma, and when professional treatment at the local emergency room should be sought will be discussed. It is by no means all-inclusive, and although the author strives for perfection, errors may escape his notice. Therefore, please feel free to forward any and all questions or comments.

Injury Prevention

Before acquiring a specimen, the hobbyist should always seek information concerning its care and requirements. At this time, inquires into any potential threat that this organism poses to the aquarist should be undertaken as well. Pictures and scientific names are very important in the correct identification of a specimen. Often a store will sell one specimen under a different common name to another of the same species, either because of ignorance, mislabeling, or differences in regional "reef vernacular". This error can become important since similar species can vary greatly. For example, some sea urchin and octopus species produce venom, while others do not. If the prospective buyer has seen a similar specimen with a different name before in a store or book, such discrepancies should be discussed with the store person. Some important questions to ask include:

• Is this creature dangerous?
• Can it sting, stab, or bite?
• Does it produce a toxin?
• What precautions must be taken when handling it or placing my arm in the tank?
• Am I qualified to have this specimen in my tank?

The answers to these questions can be found in numerous aquarium books, by talking to other hobbyists, and by asking questions to knowledgeable store employees. Recently the author had a conversation with a store manager who has raised and collected fish for many years. He had been stung and bitten on about a dozen different occasions by a number of fish and invertebrate species. Talking to someone who has seen the dangerous side of a species can provide great insight!

If it is decided to purchase an organism that is potentially dangerous, do not ignore the information learned prior to acquisition. If the creature is a sessile invertebrate carefully consider the placement issues:

• What is the best spot for the animal so that it will not have to be approached during routine tank maintenance?
• How stable will the animal be in this spot, and what is the potential that it will fall on an arm if the rockwork is disrupted while something is being done in the aquarium?
• If the organism is motile, is the aquarium set up such that hiding places and shelter are provided so that it can retreat when an arm is introduced into the aquarium?

Most fish will only become aggressive if they feel threatened. Many, but not all reef inhabitants that possess injurious defense mechanisms are actually rather benign provided the aquarist takes the necessary precautions when introducing a hand or arm into the tank.

One must always know where the animal is relative to the arm. By following these simple rules and some common sense, the majority of deleterious encounters will easily be avoided:

• If the distance is too small, consider withdrawing the arm or using a net to help widen the buffer zone.
• Use a "spotter" to help keep track of the animal.
• When handling dangerous corals and anemones, disposable latex gloves will often provide a suitable barrier.
• Arm-length gloves can also protect the arm from less visible sources of injury such as nematocyst-laden mucus.
• Always move slowly; quick movements will scare the tank's inhabitants and precipitate erratic and aggressive responses.

Injury Types

Obviously, the vast majority of tank related injuries will involve the fingers, hands, and arms since these areas are most often exposed to danger. After confronting a tank inhabitant and losing, a rigid protocol should be followed. It is always best to alert others of the predicament and ask for help sooner rather than later. Standard first aid should be practiced. If you are not certified in CPR and first aid, seriously consider taking the time to do so. It is much better to have some idea of what is to be done in an emergency, whether it involves a fish tank, the dinner table, or a traffic accident. Nobody likes to teach or learn CPR over the phone.... Acutely, most aquarium accidents will not cause airway, breathing, or circulation problems. Yet, this type of situation could present itself with extremely dangerous organisms like the Blue-ring octopus (Octopus maculosa or lunulatus). Moreover, shock in response to trauma from an organism that is generally considered relatively harmless, is always a possibility. Thus, it is a good idea to be always be prepared for the worst.

Hemorrhage

A more realistic acute consequence to aquarium related injury would be hemorrhage. Animals such as moray eels and reef sharks can produce very deep lacerations, or even tissue loss. Consequently the immediate need is to control bleeding. This can almost always be accomplished by sustained direct pressure on the site of injury. In very severe cases, pressure on the local artery will help. Tourniquets are dangerous and should not normally be used since they can increase the tissue damage. Anyone seriously injured in this way should obviously visit the emergency room.

More commonly, the trauma will be small in size with bleeding minimal. The possibilities are almost endless, but live rock and hard corals are two easy ways to produce minor scrapes. In this type of controlled situation bleeding should probably be encouraged, thus helping to clean and sterilizes the wound. To clarify, it is not suggested that a butcher knife is used to expand the wound. Instead, treat it like any other small cut or scrape. Wash the area thoroughly with soap and freshwater. Antibiotic ointments such as neosporin will help to prevent infection. Scrapes from hard corals usually heal slowly, with it being hypothesised that some corals produce compounds that specifically impede healing. Tetanus immunization should be up-to-date. By far the biggest complication from marine injury is infection, but this will be discussed later in more detail.

Envenomation

Numerous animals including sea urchins, the Crown-of-thorns starfish, stingrays, tangs, rabbitfish, dragonettes, catfish, and scorpion fish posses spines on their bodies. Many of these animals also posses venom that enters the wound. Depending on the species, this venom can produce local vasoconstriction of the vessels. This limits its spread, but also can create ischemic areas susceptible to tissue death and infection. Interestingly, each individual will have a different qualitative description of the pain associated with venom or a trauma. Therefore it is hard to say which organism produces the most "painful" injury. Often, dangerous stinging apparatus are retroserrate and will cause more damage if they are pulled out of the wound. In addition, they usually are fragile and readily break off within the wound. Hence, anymore than superficial injury will require medical care to detect and remove possible remaining foreign material. Small wounds should be encouraged to bleed, although this will be difficult with most puncture wounds. All should be thoroughly washed and treated with topical antibiotics. Most envenomating marine animals produce a protein based toxin that is exquisitely heat sensitive. Immersion of the area in hot water (45-50°C) for 30 to 90 minutes will help to denature the toxin and greatly reduce the symptoms. Always immerse an unaffected area as well to guard against scalding because of numbness around the wound. Do not be afraid to seek medical attention if needed! These wounds can easily become infected with bacteria, producing new symptoms several days later. Again, tetanus immunizations should be up-to-date.

Echinoderms

Certain echinoderms are covered in spines. These include sea urchins and the Crown-of-thorns-starfish (Acanthaster planci). Some species of sea urchins also contain pedicellariae. Pedicellariae are small jaw-like appendages that protrude from an underlying venom gland. They contract following sufficient stimulation of the sensory hairs present within the organ. Envenomation continues until the pedicellariae are removed, which Halstead suggests should be done using shaving cream and a razor blade. Pedicellariae venom can produce severe systemic reactions. Dangerous urchins (including the members of the families Diadematidae, Arbaciidae, Echinothuridae and Toxopneustidae) can usually be recognized by their long thin spines (often filled with venom) or short spines and pedicellariae. Solid and blunted spines pose little threat to the aquarist. The needle spines easily penetrate clothing, gloves, and the skin. These spines are very fragile and readily break and fragment in the wound. The puncture wound can be quite painful, with the possibility of the wound becoming black and it may appear to hold a broken spine when none is present.

Sting Rays

Of the numerous species of stingrays, very few are actually kept by aquarists. Yet, this animal can be extremely dangerous and requires some attention. The stinger is located in the tail, although the exact site varies according to four general patterns. The stinger is composed of a bone-like core with retroserrate processes along the sides. Tissue and venom glands cover the stinger and the entire apparatus is covered by an epidermal layer. Following the penetrating thrust of the stinger, the epithelial layer is ruptured and the venom flows into the wound, following grooves in the spine. The stinger can break off within the wound, which will usually require medical attention. The pain is sharp, shooting, and throbbing in nature. The pain increases over the first two hours and resolves over several days, with the majority easing within 12 hours. The wound bleeds profusely, and rapidly becomes swollen and red, with a central cyanotic zone. The venom can also produce physiological reactions, including vomiting, radiating pain to the central lymph nodes, diarrhea, and changes in the heart rate and blood pressure. Removal of imbedded stingers can require surgical attention because of the retroserrate spines.

Surgeonfish

Surgeonfish (genera Acanthurus and Naso) possess a sharp spine at the base of their tail. This spine is moveable and is extended away from the body and locked when the fish becomes excited. A quick thrash of the tail will produce a painful wound that will swell and become discolored. Some species appear to have venom glands, while others do not. The pain lasts for several hours and then reduces to a dull ache. As with stingray envenomations, the pain can radiate to more central lymph nodes (i.e. the axilla).

Rabbitfish

Rabbitfish (genus Siganus) fins contain multiple spiny processes, all associated with venom glands. To be exact, there are 13 dorsal, 4 pelvic, and 7 anal spines. The spines have two deep grooves that contain venom glands along the distal third of the spine. The spine is covered with an epidermal layer that is ruptured by trauma, releasing the venom in much the same way as with stingrays. The pain is sudden and severe lasting for hours to several days and producing considerable distress. Like surgeonfish, the wound swells, becomes numb and pain radiates to the regional lymph nodes. The immediate area can become cyanotic with a surrounding red area.

Dragonettes

Dragonettes (family Callionymidae) have preocular spines that can inflict puncture wounds, though it is not clear that they produce any venom. Again, this is an example of a colorful, small, peaceful fish that can inflict harm if mishandled.

Marine Catfish

Marine catfish (including the family Plotosidae) are among the most dangerous venomous fish. They contain a single spine immediately anterior to the soft rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins. These spines can be locked in an extended configuration when the fish is agitated. The spines consist of a central bony area with retroserrate processes. Venom glands are located in tissue around the spine, and according to Halstead, continue into the epidermal region. The wound is immediately painful, and the pain has been described as intensely throbbing or stabbing. The wound swells, is initially pale and the pain may radiate to regional lymph nodes. It becomes cyanotic and then red. The Oriental catfish (Plotosus lineatus) has an especially potent venom that produces violent pain lasting up to two days. Catfish spines can produce considerable damage to tissue because of the retroserrate pattern. Wounds often become infected and take weeks to heal.

Scorpionfish

Scorpionfish (family Scorpaenidae) can be divided into three main groups based upon their venom gland anatomy: the zebra, lion, and/or turkeyfish (including genera Pterois and Brachirus), the scorpionfish (including genera Apistus, Centropogon, Notesthes, Scorpaena, Scorpaenopsis, and lnimicus), and the stonefish (including genera Choridactylus, Minous, and Synanceja). Zebrafish have 13 venomous dorsal spines, 3 anal spines, and 2 pelvic spines. The spines are long, thin, and well hidden among the ornate finnage. Like the rabbitfish, zebrafish spines are grooved and have small venom glands located within. The entire spine is covered with a thin epidermal layer. Scorpionfish frequently have 12 dorsal spines, 3 anal spines, and 2 pelvic spines. These spines are shorter and thicker than those of zebrafish. Additionally, the grooves and venom glands only fill the distal two-thirds of the process. Moreover, the epidermal layer is thicker than over the zebrafish spine. Stonefish usually possess 13 dorsal, 3 anal, and 2 pelvic spines. These spines are shorter and heavier than the other two variations. Furthermore, they contain greatly enlarged venom glands and a very thick sheath. Because of the amount of toxin, these fish produce the most serious stings of the three. All three types produce essentially the same type of pain, which only varies in intensity from species to species. The pain is immediate and intense, but resolves in hours. It can be sharp, radiating, or throbbing. The wound is numb, swollen, and pale or cyanotic. Ischemia can complicate the picture, leading to ulceration and necrosis. Rapid immersion in hot water can bring great relief of the symptoms. Finally, stonefish (Synanceja) antivenin has been developed by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories, Melbourne, Australia, and can be used to inactivate the poison of certain species.

Cnidarians

Envenomation can occur by other mechanisms besides venom-laden spines. Other organisms, including bristleworms (such as the families Amphinomidae and Glyceridae), cone shell snails, the Blue-ring octopus, jellyfish, certain sea anemones (such as Actinodendron plumosum, Stoichactis kenti, Triactis producta, and Anthothoe species), and some corals and hydroids (such as Millipora, Aglaophenia, Lytocarpus, Catalaphyllia, Plerogyra, and Euphyllia species) produce toxins that at minimum are irritating to the skin and at maximum, deadly. Nematocyst-induced envenomations should be handled differently than bite or puncture wounds.

Firstly, do not apply freshwater to stings from jellyfish, sea anemones, or corals. Since the triggers are modulated by osmolarity changes, freshwater will cause any remaining nematocysts within the mucus coating to fire. The same is true with physical stimulation. Therefore, do not rub or scratch the area. Additionally, exercise care to prevent transferring any active nematocysts to other areas, including the eyes, lips, and mouth. Because the epithelial layer covering these surfaces is more delicate than that of the fingers, hands, and arm, it is possible to produce stings in these areas with nematocysts from corals that are not capable of stinging through the thicker skin of other areas. Instead, gently rinse off the surface using water from the aquarium. The skin should then be washed with vinegar (5% acetic acid) to inactivate any remaining nematocysts. Papain, or meat tenderizer, has also been reported to inactivate the toxin. For jellyfish stings, the attached nematocysts can then be shaved off using a razor and shaving cream. Certain jellyfish are quite dangerous and will require urgent medical care. Tetanus immunization should be current following any sting. Coral and anemone stings will generally range from prickly to intensely painful initially. Immersion of the area in hot water (45-50°C) for 30 to 90 minutes will help to denature the toxin and greatly reduce the symptoms. The "prickling" or burning from most marine envenomations will usually resolve over about 90 minutes, but it can potentially last for a number of hours. Usually it is followed by itching, a rash, and possible blisters which can last for several weeks. It may respond to mild topical anesthetics and steroids. Systemic antibiotics are usually not necessary for these superficial envenomations. Yet, severe reactions, which can develop ulcerations and necrosis, require immediate medical attention.

Cone Snails

The author does not know of anyone who has cone shell snails (genus Conus) in their aquariums so they will only be touched on. Cone shell snails are extremely beautiful predatory univalve mollusks that contain a highly developed and potent venom apparatus. The apparatus consists of a poison producing bulb and duct within the shell. The duct connects to a hollow rolled sheath and harpoon like tooth. Prior to stinging, the radicular tooth is released into the proboscis where it can be used to thrust into the prey. Contraction of the bulb forces venom through the duct, the hollow tooth, and then into the prey. A cone shell snail sting will produce variable symptoms depending on the species. Most will result in numbness and tingling that rapidly spreads throughout the body, especially to the mouth and lips. This is followed by muscle paralysis and possible respiratory or cardiac failure. It can occur rapidly and requires urgent medical attention. Halstead recommends using a lymphatic-venous occlusive bandage to secure a 6-8 cm x 6-8 cm x 2-3 cm gauze pad firmly over the wound, being careful not to occlude arterial circulation, until proper medical attention can be provided.

Octopuses

Octopuses should quickly be commented upon. These intelligent creatures can bite with their parrot-like jaws causing a wound that may burn or tingle, and will usually bleed profusely. Besides some swelling and redness, most octopus bites will heal uneventfully and can be treated like any other bite or wound. In contrast, the Blue-ringed octopus, Octopus maculosus and a closely related species, Octopus lunulatus, produces an extremely toxic venom that is often fatal. Though these organisms are quite beautiful, they are very dangerous and should not be sold by collectors or kept by aquarists. The Blue-ringed octopus has anterior and posterior venom-producing salivary glands. They connect via a duct to the tip of the subradular organ on the front of the tongue (posterior duct) and the pharynx (anterior ducts). The jaws attach to a powerful muscular buccal mass. Blue-ring octopus venom, maculotoxin, is one of the most powerful neurotoxins known. Initially the wound is painless, a stinging sensation and then numbness will develop. The individual will then experience a tingling sensation around the mouth, neck and head. Nausea, vomiting, visual disturbances, generalized weakness, and often fatal respiratory distress will develop. In those lucky enough to survive, the muscle paralysis lasts 4-12 hours, though some symptoms can last for weeks.

.... to be continued February 1999 Issue....

You Wouldn't Believe It!

.... the skeleton of corals in the genus Alveopora is so porous that when dry it floats.

.... some soft corals can avoid a territorial war with an adjoining encrusting organism by spreading via a tendral over it to a nearby vacant space. Once the second colony is established the connecting tendral will break.

Bereavement Notices

No lost residents to bereave this month.

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