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The best defense against illness in your captive seahorses is zealous prevention measures, prevention in the forms of providing stress-free, naturally replicated, uncrowded environment; suitable, nutritious, varied, enriched foods; and the administration of one of the newly available probiotic additives, some of which contain Beta glucan (a proven cancer-fighting agent). Given these precautions, should your seahorse still contract a disease, early intervention affords the highest probability of complete recovery. Keen daily observation yields clues to when treatment may be deemed necessary.

Prevention of Disease

Prevention of many seahorse illnesses begins with a stress-free environment. Aquascaping toward a realistic biotope, using seagrasses as holdfasts, the use of live rock and live sand, building privacy retreats using live or artificial plants and rock all help replicate seahorses' natural environment. Water flow should be variable, not stagnant.

Most people's inclination is to have almost no water movement in a seahorse tank, because seahorses are such feeble swimmers; however, Mother Nature equipped seahorses for life in vigorous water movement, and they seem to fare better, in my experience, in a tank that maintains moderate levels of water movement. Perhaps this is due to the improved water quality that results when more water movement occurs in a closed system. The water-moving mechanisms, of course, should be temporarily disabled during feedings.

Low light levels seem to make seahorses more comfortable, with regular cycles of on and off times. One should also strive to keep temperature and salinity as constant as possible. These levels depend upon which species of seahorse is kept; however, it is more important to keep these levels consistent than it is to exactly replicate the levels from where they were collected. I keep my H. reidi at 1.022 SG, 78^o F; and I keep my H. zostreae at 1.018 SG, and 80^o F.

Activity around the seahorse tank should be kept to a minimum. It is important to remember that seahorses aren't designed for quick retreat, and, while they may not "spook" and bolt as readily as the swift and nimble butterfly fish in the other tank, the impulse to do so because of induced fright causes increases in metabolic rates, creating stress, lowering resistance to opportunistic pathogens just waiting for the chance to multiply in and on your pet.

Tankmates should be chosen with great care, if even included at all. Some compatible fish acceptable to this environment are small clown gobies, firefish, green chromises, or dragonets. High-energy, "busy" fish, such as dottybacks, wrasses, clownfish, and tangs, sometimes disturb a seahorse's almost methodical serenity, again causing stress.

In the prevention arsenal, correct nutrition probably is the most vital weapon in the war against disease. One absolutely must provide a continuous supply of suitable size, type, and quality of food for seahorses to have any hope of their long-term survival in captive-care situations. Encourage the proliferation of naturally occurring live foods in the aquarium, such as copepods, amphipods, mysis-type shrimp, or even the larvae of many commonly available ornamental shrimp, such as Scarlet cleaner, Peppermint, or Camel shrimp (most of these shrimp are hermorphodites and any two breed quite readily in the aquarium). Although a labor-intensive endeavor, it is possible to culture brine shrimp and freshwater ghost (river) shrimp for use as seahorse fodder. Enrich all food provided to your seahorses with food additives such as Selco^TM (available from Florida Aqua Farms), Kent Marine's Zoe^TM, M.T.I. Inc.'s Beta-Meal^TM, (a spray-dried D. salina algal powder), greenwater, or prepared microalgae paste. Algae-based foods, usually provided by being a natural food choice of the seahorse's prey item, are necessary for seahorses and are often overlooked as a vital supplement to the captive seahorse diet. Feeding captive seahorses' intended prey using the bioencapsulation method enables one to put whatever elements are suspected as needed into the seahorse, vitamins, fresh seafoods, and medications (although difficult to gage dosage).

Several innovative immune enhancement products have recently become available to aquarists, among the many are those such as Aquamarine's Immune Boost^TM, Tropical Science's Marine Max^TM, Mark Weiss' Immuno Vital Marine^TM, and the controversial, mysterious Sano^TM. In my personal experience with Immune Boost and Marine Max, I find very favorable results in my seahorses' appetite, energy level, color, and increased vigor using these products.

Disease Diagnosis and Treatments

Seahorses aren't notorious for the most common, easily diagnosed diseases that seem to plague marine fish, amyloodinium and cryptocaryon; oh, no, seahorses hold regular court to the obscure, difficult-to-identify pathogens, many of these seem particularly attracted to seahorses, in general, rarely manifesting themselves in fish that even share the same tank. Because seahorses represent a small segment of the captive marine fish population, not much in the way of research information exists in diagnosing seahorse-specific diseases, and even fewer treatment protocols have been established. Sometimes treatments are a "best guess" situation. Historically, and tragically, many fail. Only by sharing treatment records with one another can we begin to outline specific guidelines for identifying and treating these terrible maladies.

If a seahorse contracts any of the common marine fish diseases, one may feel safe treating at the highest recommended dosage. Amyloodinium (Velvet) responds to treatment with copper sulfate, but treatment must be started in the very earliest stages of the disease. Cryptocaryon (ich) responds to freshwater dips or chemotherapeutic baths. Hyposalinity treatments of 1.011 SG for extended periods of time (at least one week) can be very successful in treating marine ich, and seahorses tolerate changes in salinity fairly well. Stubborn cases will require the use of copper sulfate, which, while extremely effective, requires exact dosing and daily testing of copper level to avoid overdosing or underdosing.

"Gas bubble disease" is a term coined for the physical condition that results from suspected Vibrio sp. systemic bacterial infections. In my experience, most of the seahorses that fall ill in captive-care situations are victims of this malady. It has long been the nemesis of seahorse enthusiasts. The exact causes of these infections are unknown; however, stress and nutritional deficiencies play a heavy role. It is believed that these bacteria live in all aquariums. Most healthy fish are able to hold the pathogens at bay because of optimally operating immune systems. Seahorses, as discussed previously, are very sensitive to even the most seemingly benign stress and succumb easily to these particular bacteria. Vibrio sp. infections are manifested by the following symptoms: visible air bubbles under the skin, most prominent on the head and tail; swollen pouch in male seahorses; the appearance of a bloated body cavity; lethargy; decrease in feeding response, escalating to anorexia; donut-like tissue swellings around the eyes; repeated snapping of the snout (although not striking at prey items); darkened color; swimming abnormalities, affecting coordination.

While a grave illness, some treatments are available. My treatment plan is somewhat unorthodox, but it has resulted in an almost 100-percent success rate. Treatment involves the use of the drug minocycline, sold under the trade name of Saltwater Maracyn-Two, manufactured and marketed by Mardel Laboratories, Inc. I experienced the encouraging recovery rates when using the drug at greatly elevated dosages than recommended on the package label. I treated the seahorse in a simple, large specimen container attached to the inside of the display tank. The first day, I used one half of a 20 mg. tablet of the drug and a teaspoon of Marine Max. The container held approximately two quarts of tank water, a slow bubbling, coarse airstone, a small piece of live rock rubble, and a plastic plant for use as a holdfast. Each day, I changed 100-percent of the water, replacing it with tank water, readding the medication and Marine Max; however, days two through ten, I added one-fourth of one tablet. I kept careful records, and the seahorse displayed marked improvement only 24 hours into the procedure. He previously had been unable to swim in a normal fashion, because he was so filled with bacteria-generated gas. His eyes were swollen, and he had ceased feeding. After only 24 hours, he regained control of his buoyancy and all swellings were greatly reduced. By 48 hours post treatment, he began to feed on the small, enriched river shrimp added to his specimen box. After four days of treatment, he was showing completely normal behaviors (other than being very irritated that he had to be subjected to those daily water changes). I treated him for a full ten days before returning him to his main tank. Six months later, this seahorse is still alive and thriving. While intentional overdosing of drugs is dangerous and ill advised, if you are unfortunate enough to have a seahorse afflicted with this disease, it might be worth the risk in attempting treatment such as outlined above, rather than letting the seahorse continue to suffer a lingering, almost certain death. Keep careful records so you can share either successes or failures with other seahorse enthusiasts.

Another form of "Gas Bubble Disease" is just that, trapped gas in the brood pouch of male seahorses. This occurs when unhatched eggs or unborn seahorse fry decompose, or it might also be caused by trapped air bubbles from an unguarded airstone in the aquarium. Air stones should be hidden from seahorses, who love to "bathe" in the shower of bubbles, often trapping them inside their pouch. Some aquarists have used innovative ways to remove this temptation, employing the use of undergravel filter uplift tubes, using perforated partitions, or building a guard out of plastic mesh to keep seahorses from anchoring to the source of the airbubbles. Treatments include the physical expulsion of the trapped air, using a blunt, hollow instrument; or some success has been realized by "decompressing" the animals by placing them in a cage and lowering them in a tank of greater than two feet for several days (Delbeek, C., personal communication).

Sometimes seahorses experience fin rot, a fraying of the fins. This most often is caused by poor water quality. Treatments involve improving tank conditions and conventional antibacterial chemotheraputic baths.

Newly imported seahorses or seahorses that have been chilled often display fungal infections on their skin, manifested as slimy patches or tufts of white "fuzz". It is possible to treat these with a cotton swab dipped in malachite green. Copper sulfate is also effective, but its use must be employed with suitable precautions.

Internal parasitic infestations occur in all fish. They are rarely a problem in healthy seahorses. In the event a seahorse begins to have obvious problems, such as rapid weight loss even though the fish is eating, listlessness, visible worms passed in the fecal pellet, treatment must be administered. Since seahorses are difficult to feed anything other than live food, the bioencapsulation method is the best choice for introducing the anthelmintic into the seahorse. Medicated foods for suspected internal parasites are available at most local pet stores. Choose one with mebendazole and feed this to the seahorses' intended live food shortly before you offer them to the seahorses. (Ghost shrimp should be fed to the seahorses when the medication-laced food is still visible in shrimps' thorax region; live adult brine shrimp are filter feeders and take 10 to 12 hours to ingest the medication, which can be purchased separately, not as a premixed food, and sprinkled into their culture water.) Treat for three days and then repeat the procedure a few weeks later.

Seahorses sometimes attract an external parasite known as a fish louse (argulus). These can be identified as flat "bugs," almost resembling a terrestrial wood tick, most often attached to the seahorse's sides or nape of the neck. The easiest way to eradicate these parasites is with a three- to five-minute freshwater dip. Be sure to adjust the temperature and pH of the freshwater to the same as the tank water prior to treatment and discard the water after treatment. Should the louse fail to detatch, simply remove the parasite with tweezers, applying an antiseptic (such as iodine) to the attachment site with a cotton swab.

Sadly, seahorses sometimes fall victim to a seahorse-specific, deadly condition known as Gulgea, caused by a microsporidian parasite with a complicated, lengthy life cycle. Once introduced to a tank, it can be almost impossible to eradicate and will, for years, keep rearing its ugly head. Symptoms include pale patches, almost raised in appearance, over the seahorse's body, which are actually cysts waiting to hatch and spew motile trophozoites intent on finding new hosts in which to complete their life cycle, usually at the expense of the seahorse. There is no known cure at this time, so, as you can see, this is a strong case for quarantining all newly acquired seahorses.

Seahorses can sometimes sustain injuries from rocks, equipment, or even tankmates occupying their environment. Maintained in optimal water quality, most of these injuries are quickly healed. In the event a injury does not began to repair itself within a day or two, topical application of an antibiotic salve is advised.

This is by no account an exhaustive listing of diseases that may befall captive seahorses; however, it is a broad overview of a few of the problems you might incur in your seahorse keeping adventures. Please refer to the references listed at the end of this article for specific treatments and drug dosages.

May Fate Favor the Seahorse

Stewardship, including health care, of seahorses is not an easy task and should not be undertaken lightly. More and more seahorses are disappearing from their wild homes. Those that are offered for sale should be extended all the respect due an endangered species. To survive, seahorses need an ever-dedicated friend. Please make it your mission to investigate, read, and aspire to learn all you can about seahorses. May your seahorses ever glow in radiant health and vitality. . .

References

Andrews, Chris, Dr., Exell, Adrian, and Dr. Neville Carrington. The Manual of Fish Health, Tetra Press, 1988.
Bassleer, Gerald. Diseases in Marine Aquarium Fish: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Bassleer Biofish, 1996.
Bellomy, Mildred. Encyclopedia of Sea Horses, T.F.H., 1969.
Giwojna, Peter. A Step-By-Step Book About Seahorses, T.F.H., 1990.
Moe, Martin A., Jr. The Marine Aquarium Handbook: Beginner to Breeder, 4th ed., Green Turtle Publications, March 1995.
Vincent, Amanda, Dr. "Seahorse Keeping," The Breeder's Registry: The Journal of Maquaculture, Winter 1995 and Spring 1995.

The author would like to express her sincere thanks to the following individuals for their expertise, support, and friendship in her quest for more and more knowledge about her most beloved of all marine organisms, the seahorse. . . Bob Parle, "my Merlin," Alan Underkofler, the editor's editor, Dallas Warren, for always knowing the answer, and most of all to Neptune, my H. reidi, who consents to live with me and teach me more about seahorses than exists in any book.